2024 Onward
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Item Field performance of two insulation covers for mine site reclamation in an arctic climate(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-10-06) Larochelle, Chloé G.; Bussière, Bruno; Boulanger-Martel, Vincent; Wilson, G. WardInsulation covers can be used to reclaim mine sites in cold regions with continuous permafrost. These covers aim to maintain reactive wastes below a target temperature (Ttarget ≤ 0°C) to limit the oxidation reaction kinetics that can lead to acid mine drainage. This study focused on the thermo-hydrogeological behavior and performance of two insulation covers, analyzed using field data collected from experimental cells between 2012 and 2020. The performance of the covers was evaluated based on oxygen fluxes at the tailings–cover interface, which were calculated using the ground temperature and the properties of the reactive tailings. Oxygen fluxes varied between 0 and 29 mol/mItem Influence of Joint Stiffness on Three-dimensional Deformation Mechanisms of Pipelines under Tunnel Active Face Instability(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-10-06) Shi, Jiangwei; Zhong, Xiaochun; Lu, Hu; Ni, Xiaodong; Shi, ChaoAlthough extensive research has been conducted in literature to investigate tunnelling effects on pipelines, the performance of existing jointed pipelines subjected to excessive tunnel movement has not been investigated. This study sets out to examine the effects of tunnel active instability on three-dimensional deformation patterns of existing pipelines using physical model tests. Tunnelling induced ground / pipeline settlement, joint rotation, and bending strain under various horizontal tunnel face movements are systematically explored. Results show that the tunnel face pressure at the active limit state is practically independent of tunnel cover to diameter ratio (C/D). Existing pipelines that fall within a range of 0.1 D ~ 0.5 D ahead of the tunnel face experience excessive settlements, significant bending strains and joint rotation. The measured peak settlement of pipelines at 0.3 D in front of the tunnel face exceeds the allowable limit, and the maximum settlements in the jointed pipeline are up to 2.67 times those observed in the continuous pipeline. Meanwhile, the joint rotation angle and settlement induced in the jointed pipeline are greatly affected by the C/D ratio and decrease by up to 55.5% and 22.0% with an increasing C/D ratio from 1.0 to 1.5.Item Use of Shear Wave Velocity to assess Champlain Marine Clay Fabric Anisotropy(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-11-22) Torabi Pour, Amin; Ethier, Yannic; Karray, MouradThis paper investigates the anisotropic characteristics of Champlain marine clay soil using a combination of laboratory techniques. A modified oedometer cell with a piezoelectric ring actuator technique was used to measure shear wave velocity during consolidation stages. The axisymmetric design of the oedometer allowed for the determination of shear wave velocity in both the vertical and horizontal planes. The preliminary findings reveal that the sensitive marine clay is inherently anisotropic, with lower preconsolidation pressure for horizontally consolidated specimens and faster propagation of shear waves in the plane parallel to the bedding layer. High-precision strain gauges integrated into the consolidation ring were used to evaluate horizontal stress during the one-dimensional consolidation test. The ability to determine mean effective stress enables the normalization of shear wave velocities using this stress, providing more coherent empirical correlations in terms of shear wave velocity. Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the microstructure of clay specimens, providing qualitative and quantitative insight into the restructuring and reorientation of clay platelets under consolidation stress. The consistency of the results through both micro and macro-scale analyses confirms the reliability of the experimental approach, highlighting its potential for future studies on the anisotropy of Champlain marine clay fabrics.Item A numerical study of deep excavations adjacent to existing tunnels: Integrating CPTU and SDMT to calibrate soil constitutive model(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-11-10) Lai, Fengwen; Tschuchnigg, Franz; Schweiger, Helmut; Liu, Songyu; Shiau, Jim S.; Cai, GuojunAccurate determination of parameters for an advanced soil constitutive model highly relies on laboratory testing, even though it is notoriously difficult to obtain undisturbed samples for soft soils. This study explores the potential use of in-situ tests, such as piezocone penetration tests (CPTU) and seismic dilatometer tests (SDMT), to estimate the constitutive model parameters. Based on a case history of a deep excavation adjacent to existing tunnels in silt/sand-dominated sediments, a calibration approach of a set of the HSSmall (Hardening Soil Model with Small Strain Stiffness) model parameters is presented, and the derived parameters are used to numerically compute the interactive responses of tunnels and deep excavations. Several comparisons against field monitoring data indicate that the numerical model with the CPTU/SDMT-interpreted HSSmall model parameters adequately reproduces observed deformation responses of deep excavations adjacent to tunnels. However, the use of laboratory tests with disturbed samples to estimate the stiffness parameters of the HSSmall model may lead to an overconservative solution. This finding supports the use of CPTU/SDMT to provide representative parameters for a range of soil layers, leading to the conclusion that tunnel linings may be beneficial to mitigate ground movements and wall deflections due to a barrier effect.Item Creep Behavior of Ice-Rich Warm Peaty Soils along the Trans Alaska Pipeline System at Lost Creek, Alaska(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-11-22) Bray, Matthew T.; Darrow, MargaretIn Interior Alaska, a slope underlying the Trans Alaska Pipeline System has recently experienced downslope movement, which is attributed to a buried frozen, ice-rich peat layer. We performed a field investigation of the site including coring and sampling, and conducted a suite of laboratory tests including mechanical tests at temperatures between -0.56°C and -5°C to quantify the secondary creep behavior and to estimate the impact of soil cooling on the creep deformation. We tested a variety of soils, including ice-rich silt, silty peat, and peat with the majority having an organic content of 10% or greater. The results indicated that temperature has a strong control on the resulting time-dependent mechanical properties. Here we provide secondary creep power law relationships for these soils. The analysis indicates that cooling the soils can be effective in reducing creep movement; for example, cooling by 1.1°C from -0.56°C to -1.67°C results in an order of magnitude reduction in the shear deformation rates. These results are significant as they add to the limited amount of work done on the time-dependent mechanical behavior of ice-rich peat and organic soils at warm sub-freezing temperatures.Item Nonparametric and Continuous Variable-Based Stratigraphic Modelling from Sparse Boreholes using Signed Distance Function and Bayesian Compressive Sensing(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-09-19) Qian, Zehang; Shi, Chao; Wang, Yu; Cao, ZijunAn accurate stochastic interpretation of subsurface stratigraphy with quantified uncertainty can benefit the subsequent risk management of geotechnical infrastructure. Traditional approaches to developing geological cross-sections from sparse boreholes typically require the calibration or definition of empirical model parameters and functions, which may introduce subjectivity and bias. In this study, a non-parametric and continuous variable-based spatial predictor that leverages the signed distance function and Bayesian compressive sensing (BCS) is proposed for subsurface stratigraphic modelling. The proposed method transforms sparse categorical borehole data from a low-dimensional space into continuous variables in a high-dimensional space, enabling a comprehensive representation of more implicit characteristics of intricate geological patterns. This transformation facilitates the use of the continuous-variable-based BCS for non-parametric spatial prediction. The most probable geological cross-section and uncertainty qualification plot are derived after transforming spatially interpreted fields of continuous variables back into soil types. The performance of the proposed method is demonstrated using synthetic and real-world cases. Results indicate that the proposed approach can handle intricate stratigraphic scenarios characterized by complex geological structures, such as crossed-inclined, folded, inclined-folded, and interbedded strata, in a data-driven and non-parametric manner. The advantages of the proposed method over existing spatial predictors for developing geological cross-sections are also demonstrated.Item Modelling the impact of deterioration on the long-term performance of Dublin Tunnel(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-09-05) Wang, Chao; Xiao, Zhipeng; Friedman, Miles; Li, ZiliThe influence of tunnel deteriorations on its long-term performance has received extensive attention recently. Most studies considered deteriorations by manually varying the magnitude of parameters like permeability and stiffness, neglecting their time-dependent variation. This paper addresses this gap by investigating the impact of time-dependent deteriorations on the long-term behaviour of the aging Dublin Port Tunnel (DPT). A modified analytical relative ground-lining permeability model and calculated deteriorated permeability for DPT were presented, with steps and procedures generalised. The deteriorated permeability was incorporated into the hydraulic deterioration model, together with mechanical deterioration, offering a more holistic and realistic prediction of DPT’s long-term performance than previously available. Numerical results, compared against field measurements, showed (1) assuming constant permeability fails to accurately capture time-dependent liner deformation, and hydraulic deterioration is the dominant factor inducing an approaching squatting deformation mode; (2) continuous mechanical deterioration leads to a linear growth in vertical and horizontal convergence over time, with vertical convergence being more pronounced, indicating a squatting contraction deformation mode; (3) the comparison quantitatively evaluates the impact of individual and coupled hydro-mechanical deterioration on DPT’s long-term behaviour and the agreement between field data and numerical results confirms coupled lining deterioration is the root cause behind the observation.Item Effect of Progressive Wetting on Permanent Deformation of Fouled Ballast under Cyclic Loading(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-10-22) Huang, Shihao; Qian, YuClimate change in recent decades has increased the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events, causing varied moisture contents in the ballasted track, which greatly challenges railway operation and track maintenance. Currently, most research about permanent deformation of fouled ballast are under dry condition or with a moisture content in the individual tested sample, which could not fully represent varied moisture conditions in the field induced by varying rainfall intensities. In this paper, permanent deformation of field-sourced fouled ballast under progressive wetting condition was investigated using large-scale triaxial cyclic tests. The results indicate that, with progressively rising water contents (0% to 12%), the fouled ballast sample maintained their stability; however, the rate of permanent strain increases to a peak value before experiencing a slight decline, aligning with classified shakedown ranges. This observed phenomenon can be attributed to the interplay between wetting, densification, and interlocking under conditions of cyclic loading and progressive wetting, an aspect that existing research have not elaborated. To encapsulate the identified deformation characteristics, this study proposes and validates a new predictive model for the permanent deformation of fouled ballast, demonstrating high prediction accuracy for fouled ballast with varying water contents.Item Pavement performance over deep trenches backfilled with recycled aggregates under different compaction efforts(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-11-04) Al-Taie, Asmaa; Yaghoubi, Ehsan; Tahmoorian, Farzaneh; Li, Jie; Ahmed, Balqees A.Insufficient understanding of the stress-strain behavior of pavements built over backfilled trenches, particularly with recycled aggregates, often leads to over-design or over-compaction, raising costs and project delays. This research investigates how compaction levels during backfilling impact the pavement performance over these trenches. Various recycled material mixtures, both unbound and cement-treated, are compared with conventional crushed rock. Investigations included repeated load triaxial (RLT) tests, microstructural analysis with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), environmental assessments, and modeling with FlexPAVETM, a pavement response and performance analysis software. RLT test results were incorporated into the FlexPAVETM models by utilizing established constitutive resilient modulus models. Stress-strain responses of pavements over recycled aggregate backfill, compacted with standard and modified Proctor efforts, were compared with those over crushed rock and natural clay subgrades. Outcomes revealed that the standard compaction energy was sufficient for the desired performance. Fatigue and rutting strains with recycled mixtures closely resembled those with crushed rock, making them viable green alternatives. Pavements over backfilled trenches exhibited 1.5 and 1.8 times longer fatigue and rutting lives, respectively, than those over natural clay subgrades.Item Modelling pile foundations under biaxial loading with a plasticity-based p-y methodology(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-09-02) McCarron, WilliamComparison of three-dimensional continuum finite element and p-y analyses illustrate the accuracy and efficiency of biaxial laterally loaded pile solutions obtained with a plasticity-based p-y methodology. The analyzed pile conditions correspond to a test pile founded in a stiff over-consolidated glacial till. The numerical analyses are first benchmarked against observed test responses for planar loading. Hypothetical cyclic pile responses are then investigated for two conditions with biaxial loading that produce anisotropic displacement responses due to the developing plastic foundation responses. The p-y model is based on a bounding surface plasticity theory facilitating analysis of loading in arbitrary directions relative to the pile axis. The three-dimensional continuum finite element model allows for the formation of a soil-pile gap in conjunction with an elastic perfectly-plastic Tresca soil model. The numerical analyses show that the p-y methodology captures the characteristic displacement and energy responses observed in the continuum analyses under biaxial loading with far less computational effort. Analyses demonstrate that significant anisotropic plastic responses may develop in simple cyclic biaxial loading conditions, perhaps rendering planar p-y model formulations inadequate with respect to a need to accurately predict responses and ensure they satisfy design performance criteria.Item An Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Strain Rate and Stress Path on Undrained Response of Nonplastic Soils in Direct Simple Shear Mode(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-09-24) Chen, Jiarui; Olson, Scott; Banerjee, Soham; Dewoolkar, Mandar M.; Dubief, YvesNumerous studies have explored the influence of strain rate on the small- and large-strain shear resistance of nonplastic soils, most using conventional drained and undrained (or constant volume) laboratory tests. To supplement the initial states, soil gradations, and modes of shear examined in earlier studies, the authors used direct simple shear (DSS) tests to evaluate the effect of shear strain rate on the shear resistance of three nonplastic soils with fines contents that varied from 0% to 60%. In addition, the effect of stress path on the critical state and uniqueness of the critical state line (CSL) were explored. Results from the DSS tests on these soils indicated that irrespective of the nonplastic fines content: (i) peak undrained shear strength increased by up to approximately 9% for every order of magnitude increase in strain rate; (ii) strain rate had little to no impact on shearing resistance at the critical state regardless of stress path; and (iii) the CSL was independent of strain rate. In addition, the authors postulate that the effect of strain rate on peak undrained shear strength may be related to differences in inertia during shearing as well as particle rearrangement.Item Shear-Wave-Velocity Profiling of a Test Embankment for a High-Speed Rail Project using the Spectral-Analysis-of-Surface-Waves (SASW) Method(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-10-02) Kim, Gunwoong; Stokoe II, Kenneth H.; Hwang, SungmoonNondestructive seismic testing was conducted at 24 locations on and around the embankment to evaluate the compaction effort and lateral variabilities at the site. This embankment was being constructed as a test embankment for a high-speed railroad section in the U.S.A. Different compaction techniques were used in different embankment areas, and nuclear-gauge density measurements were performed to evaluate the compaction quality in all areas. Additionally, Spectral-Analysis-of-Surface-Waves (SASW) testing was performed to determine the Vs profiles at numerous locations on and around the embankment. The Vs values determined from the SASW testing were used to compare and evaluate areas where different compaction methods were used, as well as to help understand the overall site. The embankment was divided into three zones. In each zone, five shorter and one longer SASW arrays on top of the embankment were used to determine the Vs profiles. Also, in each zone, Vs profiles in the natural soil were determined using two additional long SASW arrays on the natural ground, one array on each longitudinal side of the embankment. These 24 Vs profiles on and around the embankment were used to evaluate lateral variability in the shear stiffnesses of the geotechnical materials at the site.Item Hydraulic Conductivity of Air-Dried Bentonite-Sand Blocks Permeated with Synthetic Groundwater from Radioactive Waste Repository(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-09-02) Zhou, Guangping; Tan, Yu; Peng, Yu; Zhang, Huyuan; Zhang, Poyu; Chen, Jiannan; Liu, PingLaboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of drying cracks on hydraulic conductivity of compacted bentonite-sand blocks used as engineered barriers for radioactive waste disposal. Blocks were air-dried in an indoor environment to simulate the worst scenario without protection from drying during the interim storage and installation of the block. Synthetic groundwaters around the promising repository area were used as permeant solutions to study the hydraulic conductivity of air-dried blocks. Air-dried block samples were scanned by computed tomography (CT) before and after permeation to visualize the healing of drying cracks. Results show that swelling of the blocks was suppressed by the chemical components in the synthetic groundwater, and hydraulic conductivity of the block increased slightly (Item Modelling the evolving critical state of crushable soils and parameter optimization with an improved genetic algorithm (AIS-RCGA)(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-10-02) Zhang, Sheng; Xiong, Haibin; Tong, Chenxi; He, Xuzhen; Sheng, DaichaoThe critical state line (CSL) plays an essential role in the constitutive modelling of granular soils. It serves as a reference line for the measurement of the state parameter. The critical state of crushable soils cannot accurately be determined from experimental data because of the ever-changing soil properties due to particle breakage. In this study, two new parameters eB and eb are introduced, which account for the final position and the evolution of CSL of crushable soils during shearing, respectively. To identify the optimal CSL-related parameters from experimental data, a hybrid genetic algorithm combining artificial immune system (AIS) and real-coded genetic algorithm (RCGA), namely AIS-RCGA is adopted. The fitness is defined to minimize the prediction error of both void ratio (or, pore water pressure) and deviatoric stress. We have refined the tuning methods for several hyperparameters of AIS-RCGA and proposed a novel method to assess the similarity of individuals within AIS-RCGA. Results show that the new method is more efficient in finding the global optimal for our problem. With optimized model parameters, the new constitutive model can accurately predict the response of crushable soil, outperforming other constitutive model reported in the literature.Item Incorporating region-variability of model bias into liquefaction-triggering procedures for sandy and gravelly soils through BUS-powered hierarchical Bayesian updating(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-08-15) Wang, Mao-Xin; Leung, Y.F.; Lo, Man KongThe accuracy of semi-empirical liquefaction-triggering procedures can vary systematically from region to region, but it is challenging to regionalize models due to the lack of region-specific data. This paper presents a hierarchical Bayesian modeling (HBM)-based framework for incorporation of inter-region and intra-region variabilities of the bias factor in liquefaction-triggering procedures. A key feature of the framework is that the BUS approach (Bayesian Updating with Structural reliability methods) is combined with subset simulation to efficiently update high-dimensional statistics of bias factors. Another feature is the quantification of evidence for model plausibility evaluation using Gaussian copula. This framework is utilized to develop three sets of region-specific liquefaction probability models, covering liquefaction-susceptible sandy and gravelly soils. The results show that HBM considering both region-specific means and variances of bias factor matches better with liquefaction observations and produces larger total variance, compared to the existing lumped-region modeling and HBM with only region-specific means. Meanwhile, the population-level distribution and the weighting factor of liquefaction/non-liquefaction occurrence can considerably affect modeling performance. Furthermore, a discrete integration-based probabilistic method is suggested for liquefaction-triggering hazard assessment. Illustrative examples show that different HBM configurations can yield notably different liquefaction hazard results, while neglecting the region-variability is likely to be unconservative.Item Three-dimensional voxel geological modelling for subsurface stratigraphy: A graph convolutional network approach(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-07-24) Wang, Lai; Pan, Qiujing; Huang, Shan; Su, DongThree-dimensional (3D) geological modelling enhances the understanding and visualisation of complex subsurface stratigraphy, which underpins geotechnical digital twin and resilience design. Existing methods for 3D geological modelling suffer from either high computational burden or low modelling accuracy in large-scale region modelling with complex subsurface stratigraphy. This paper presents a novel deep learning method that applies the graph convolutional network (GCN) to 3D voxel geological modelling using limited boreholes. A topological graph is firstly constructed, with spatial points encoded as graph nodes. The strata types and spatial coordinates are incorporated into the feature vector of each node. Spatial correlations are quantified through weighted edges by connecting pairs of nodes within a cuboid neighbouring system. Besides, the occurrence probability of strata in all boreholes is embedded into the feature vector of each graph node to further improve the model robustness. A series of comparisons shows that the proposed method outperforms traditional TPS and MPS methods in terms of modelling accuracy. The proposed method is finally applied to a real tunnel engineering in Changsha City, which demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed method in complex 3D geological settings.Item Accelerated carbonation of non-plastic soils mixed with hydrated lime: index properties influencing binder formation rate and mechanical improvement(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-07-26) Gallant, Aaron; Hossen, Sk Belal; Ashraf, WardaChemical stabilization—the mixing of additives like cement, lime, or fly-ash with soil to improve its mechanical properties—conventionally relies on hydration reactions to generate a binder. Accelerated soil carbonation is a nascent alternative method, whereby carbon dioxide is intentionally introduced in soil mixed with alkali additives to generate a carbonate binder and sequester carbon dioxide. Non-plastic sand and silt specimens mixed with hydrated lime were carbonated for varying amounts of time at different water contents and densities to evaluate the index properties influencing the rate of carbonation and degree of mechanical improvement. It was demonstrated that volumetric air and water contents primarily govern the rate of binder formation and that mechanical properties are influenced by the carbonate binder content and density. Under optimum conditions, soil specimens could be fully carbonated within 3 to 24 hours and unconfined compressive strengths as great as 3 to 4 MPa were achieved. The degree of strength improvement is comparable to cement-stabilized materials with similar dependence on soil type, density, and binder content. If techniques are developed that enable carbonation at scale, the sequestration of carbon dioxide would offset emissions associated with production of chemical additives used for chemical stabilization.Item A new concept of CSS surface for describing the thermo-mechanical volume change of unsaturated bentonite(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-07-20) Wang, Yang; Ye, Wei-min; Wang, Qiong; Chen, YongguiInvestigation on the thermo-mechanical volume change behavior of unsaturated bentonite is of great significance for successful design and construction of geological repositories. In this work, two types of thermo-mechanical volume change tests were carried out on unsaturated GMZ bentonite specimens. Results of temperature-suction controlled compression tests indicated that the virgin compression lines of unsaturated bentonite eventually converged toward that of saturated bentonite. With the concept of critical saturated state (CSS) curve, bilinear normal consolidation lines with consideration of temperature were proposed. Results of thermal loading tests indicated that the effects of over-consolidation ratio (OCR) on the thermal volume change behavior of unsaturated and saturated bentonite were similar, while, the suction effect on the thermal volume change behavior of unsaturated bentonite was different in unsaturated and critical saturated state. Based on the test results, a new concept of critical saturated state (CSS) surface was proposed in the stress space (s-p-T space) for compacted bentonite. In the new framework, the thermo-mechanical volume change behavior of unsaturated bentonite could be well described. The results obtained in this work could provide a new conception for developing the thermo-mechanical constitutive model for unsaturated bentonite.Item A CSS surface based THM bounding constitutive model for volumetric behavior of bentonite(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-07-19) Wang, Yang; Ye, Wei-min; Wang, Qiong; Chen, YongguiDevelopment of the constitutive model for bentonite under coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) condition is of great significance for the construction and safety assessment of deep geological disposal repositories for high-level radioactive waste (HLW). In this work, a new temperature-suction-mean net stress (T-s-p) space with the conception of critical saturated state (CSS) surface was defined to represent the actual stress state of bentonite under coupled THM condition. Then, based on the CSS surface, a THM constitutive model was proposed for describing the volumetric behavior of compacted bentonite. Under the THM model framework, two bounding surfaces were proposed to describe the elastoplastic volume changes induced by mechanical response of skeleton and hydration of montmorillonite, respectively. The model responses upon some typical THM paths were simulated and discussed to reveal the performance of the proposed constitutive model for bentonite. Finally, the proposed model was validated by simulating by several volume change tests carried out on different bentonites. The results confirmed that the proposed model shows more advantages in describing the THM volumetric behavior.Item Experimental investigation of dewatering silty tailings using electrokinetic method(Canadian Science Publishing, 2024-07-10) Niri, Shima Rezaeian; Akhtarpour, Ali; Daliri, Farzad; Baradaran, Mohammad SalehMining and using underground resources demand high water usage, producing significant waste with environmental risks. Methods like electrokinetics prove effective in accelerating dewatering and stabilizing structures. This research provides the results of experimental investigation on dewatering silty tailings obtained from Sungun Tailings Dam (East Azerbaijan, Iran) using the electrokinetic water recovery method. Previous studies primarily examined the electrokinetic process in steady-state flow and saturated soil, with limited exploration of unsaturated soil parameters. In this research, the electrokinetic process in steady-state flow was initially investigated, and the saturated electro-osmotic permeability was determined. Subsequently, experiments were conducted in non-steady-state flow and unsaturated conditions, measuring the influential parameters with soil moisture sensors and tensiometers. Results show that decreasing sample moisture through electro-osmotic flow increases negative pore water pressure. Tailings' electrical conductivity is more influenced by moisture content, with a steeper reduction slope concerning volumetric moisture reduction over time. pH assessments show soil acidity at anode side and alkalinity on the cathode side. Higher applied voltage increasing maximum power consumption. Importantly, the results caution against assuming that higher applied voltage improves the electro-osmotic process, as it may lead to issues such as deep sample cracking; void space creation, interrupted electrical flow, and energy loss.
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