Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education

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The Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education offers outstanding undergraduate (BKIN) and graduate (MPK, MSc, PhD) degree programs where the cutting-edge research of our faculty members is brought into the classroom.

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Accuracy instructions differently modulate visual and non-visual contributions to ongoing reaches
(Canadian Psychological Association, 2018-10-21) de Grosbois, John; Jovanov, Kimberley; Tremblay, Luc
The control of ongoing goal-directed reaches is influenced by both visual and non-visual sensorimotor processes. Further, intentions to produce accurate movements influence reaching performance as well. However, it is not known how these improvements associated with accuracy-based intentions can be attributed to changes in movement planning and/or online control. Indeed, such improvements may influence both visual and non-visual online control processes. Using frequency domain analyses, the relative online contributions of such visual and non-visual sub-processes have been previously identified (e.g., de Grosbois & Tremblay, 2015; de Grosbois & Tremblay, 2016b; de Grosbois & Tremblay, 2017). The current study tested if the relative contributions of these online control sub-processes are influenced by the intention to be accurate. Reaching movements were completed in the presence of three experimental manipulations. First, vision during voluntary reaches was either provided or occluded. Second, high- and low-accuracy instruction sets were provided. And third, the predictability of visual information was manipulated through a blocked and randomized feedback scheduling. The results indicated that the contribution of online visuomotor processes (i.e., visual sub-process) was increased by the availability of online vision and the instructed intention to be accurate. In contrast, the non-visual sub-process was promoted in the absence of online vision, but suppressed when a randomized feedback schedule was implemented with instructions to be accurate. Ultimately, the intention to be accurate increases the relative contribution of vision-based online sensorimotor processes and can decrease that of non-visual online sensorimotor processes.
The action-specific effect of execution on imagination of reciprocal aiming movements
(Elsevier, 2018-03-07) Yoxon, Emma; Pacione, Sandra M; Song, Joo-Hyun; Welsh, Timothy N
Past research has shown that the movement times of imagined aiming movements were more similar to actual movement times after the individual has experienced executing the movements. The purpose of the present study was to determine if experience with a set of movements altered the imagination of movements that were not experienced. Participants imagined a series of reciprocal aiming movements in different movement difficulty contexts (created by altering target width and movement amplitude) before and after actually executing a series of aiming movements. The range of difficulties of the imagined movements included difficulty contexts that were within (Experiment 1) or outside (Experiment 2) the range of difficulty experienced during execution. It was found that imagined movement times of movements within the range of movement difficulties experienced were more consistent with Fitts' Law after movement experience, whereas imagination of more difficult movements was not altered by experience. It is suggested that execution did not enhance imagination of more difficult movements because the relative contributions of motor planning and control to the more difficult movements were different from those in the experienced movements. Thus, the enhancement of imagination through experience might only occur when mechanisms underlying the executed and imagined movements are similar.
Amending Ongoing Upper-Limb Reaches: Visual and Proprioceptive Contributions?
(Brill, 2018-01-19) Goodman, Rachel; Crainic, Valentin A.; Bested, Stephen R.; Wijeyaratnam, Darrin O.; de Grosbois, John; Tremblay, Luc
In order to maximize the precise completion of voluntary actions, humans can theoretically utilize both visual and proprioceptive information to plan and amend ongoing limb trajectories. Although vision has been thought to be a more dominant sensory modality, research has shown that sensory feedback may be processed as a function of its relevance and reliability. As well, theoretical models of voluntary action have suggested that both vision and proprioception can be used to prepare online trajectory amendments. However, empirical evidence regarding the use of proprioception for online control has come from indirect manipulations from the sensory feedback (i.e., without directly perturbing the afferent information; e.g., visual–proprioceptive mismatch). In order to directly assess the relative contributions of visual and proprioceptive feedback to the online control of voluntary actions, direct perturbations to both vision (i.e., liquid crystal goggles) and proprioception (i.e., tendon vibration) were implemented in two experiments. The first experiment employed the manipulations while participants simply performed a rapid goal-directed movement (30 cm amplitude). Results from this first experiment yielded no significant evidence that proprioceptive feedback contributed to online control processes. The second experiment employed an imperceptible target jump to elicit online trajectory amendments. Without or with tendon vibration, participants still corrected for the target jumps. The current study provided more evidence of the importance of vision for online control but little support for the importance of proprioception for online limb–target regulation mechanisms.
Athletes’ Perspectives of Preparation Strategies in Open-Skill Sports
(Taylor & Francis, 2021-02-03) Bonk, Devin; Tamminen, Katherine. A
Preparation strategies (i.e., pre-game rituals, pre-performance routines) have long been a topic of study in sport psychology. However, previous research has focused on closed-skill tasks and employed methodologies that make it difficult to capture athletes’ perspectives of these behaviors. The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of open-skill sport athletes regarding their preparation strategies. Nineteen high-performance athletes participated in semi-structured interviews. Participants described their perceptions of the structures and functions of the behaviors they consider to be part of their preparation strategies. These findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of how athletes perceive what they do to prepare for a performance. Exploring athletes’ perspectives of this phenomenon allowed for existing theoretical representations of strategies to be compared to the lived experiences of the athletes who engage in them having implications for coaches and sport psychology consultants. Lay Summary: Many athletes have strategies they use to help prepare themselves to perform at their best. We asked 19 high-performance open-skill sport athletes to describe what their preparation strategies are and why they engage in them. Coaches and practitioners should consider their athlete’s perspective when working to establish an effective preparation strategy. Implications for practice Sport psychology practitioners should strive to understand what components an athlete perceives to be part of their preparation strategy and why they engage in them. Preparation strategies can help athletes achieve optimal physical, mental, and emotional states, which differ between athletes and contexts. Preparation strategies are tied to athletes’ individual identities, and in team sports, can help to build and maintain a team’s collective identity over the course of a season.
Augmented feedback influences upper limb reaching movement times but does not explain violations of Fitts' Law
(Frontiers Media, 2015-01-16) de Grosbois, John; Heath, Matthew; Tremblay, Luc
Fitts' (1954) classic theorem asserts that the movement time (MT) of voluntary reaches is determined by amplitude and width requirements (i.e., index of difficulty: ID). Actions associated with equivalent IDs should elicit equivalent MTs regardless of the amplitude and/ or width requirements. However, contemporary research has reported that amplitude-based contributions to IDs yield larger increases in MTs than width-based contributions. This discrepancy may relate to the presence of augmented terminal feedback in Fitts' original research, which has not been provided in more recent investigations (e.g., Heath et al., 2011). To address this issue, participants performed reaching movements during two sessions wherein feedback regarding terminal accuracy was either provided or withheld. It was hypothesized that the absence of augmented terminal feedback would result in a stereotyped performance across target widths and explain the violation of Fitts' theorem. Yet, the results revealed distinct influences of amplitude- and width-based manipulations on MT, which also persisted across feedback conditions. This finding supports the assertion that the unitary nature of Fitts' theorem does not account for a continuous range of movement amplitudes and target widths. A secondary analysis was competed in an attempt to further investigate the violation of Fitts' Law. Based on error rates, participants were segregated into accuracy- and speed-prone groups. Additionally, target's IDs were recalculated based on each participant's performance using the effective target width (i.e., IDWe) instead of the nominal target width. When using MT data from the accuracy-prone group with this IDWe, the aforementioned violation was alleviated. Overall, augmented terminal feedback did not explain the violation of Fitts' theorem, although one should consider using the effective target width and participant's strategy in future investigations.
Behavioural indexes of movement imagery ability are associated with the magnitude of corticospinal adaptation following movement imagery training
(Elsevier, 2022-02-15) Yoxon, Emma; Brillinger, Molly; Welsh, Timothy N.
Movement imagery (MI) is a cognitive process wherein an individual simulates themselves performing a movement in the absence of physical movement. The current paper reports an examination of the relationship between behavioural indexes of MI ability and the magnitude of corticospinal adaptation following MI training. Behavioural indexes of MI ability included data from a questionnaire (MIQ-3), a mental chronometry task, and a hand laterality judgment task. For the measure of corticospinal adaptation, single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was administered to elicit thumb movements to determine the representation of thumb movements before and after MI training. MI training involved participants imagining themselves moving their thumb in the opposite direction to the dominant direction of the TMS-evoked movements prior to training. Pre/post-training changes in the direction and velocity of TMS-evoked thumb movements indicated the magnitude of adaptation following MI training. The two main findings were: 1) a positive relationship was found between the MIQ-3 and the pre/post-training changes in the direction of TMS-evoked thumb movements; and 2) a negative relationship between the mental chronometry measure and both measures of corticospinal adaptation following MI training. These results indicate that both ease of imagery and timing of imagery could predict the magnitude of neuroplastic adaptation following MI training. Thus, both these measures may be considered when assessing imagery ability and determining who might benefit from MI interventions.
Better together: Contrasting the hypotheses explaining the one-target advantage
(Elsevier, 2017-11-11) Bested, Stephen R; de Grosbois, John; Tremblay, Luc
Movement times are significantly shorter when moving from a start position to a single target, compared to when one has to continue onto a second target (i.e., the one-target advantage [OTA]). To explain this movement time difference, both the movement integration and the movement constraint hypotheses have been proposed. Although both hypotheses have been found to have explanatory power as to why the OTA exists, the support for each has been somewhat equivocal. The current review evaluated the relative support in the literature for these two hypotheses. Ultimately, preferential support for each theoretical explanation was found to be related to the higher indices of difficulty (IDs: Fitts, 1954) employed. That is, studies that included higher IDs (i.e., 6-8 bits) were more likely to provide more support for the movement constraint hypothesis, whereas studies employing lower IDs (i.e., 1-4 bits) were more likely to provide more support for the movement integration hypothesis. When the IDs employed were relatively intermediate (i.e., 5 bits), both hypotheses were mostly supported. Thus, task difficulty is crucial when determining which hypothesis better explains the planning and control of sequential goal-directed movements. Critically, the OTA most likely always involves integration but may also involve constraining if the accuracy demands are sufficiently high.
Body-part compatibility effects are modulated by the tendency for women to experience negative social comparative emotions and the body-type of the model
(Public Library of Science, 2017-06-20) Pila, Eva; Jovanov, Kimberely; Welsh, Timothy N; Sabiston, Catherine M
Although exposure to physique-salient media images of women's bodies has been consistently linked with negative psychological consequences, little is known about the cognitive processes that lead to these negative effects. The present study employed a novel adaptation of a computerized response time (RT) task to (i) assess implicit cognitive processing when exposed to the body of another individual, and (ii) examine individual differences in social comparative emotions that may influence the cognitive processing of human bodies. Adult females with low (n = 44) or high (n = 23) tendencies for comparative emotions completed a task in which they executed responses to coloured targets presented on the hands or feet of images of ultra-thin, average-size, and above average-size female models. Although the colour of the target is the only relevant target feature, it is typically found that the to-be-ignored location of the target on the body of the model influences RTs such that RTs are shorter when the target is on a body-part that is compatible with the responding limb (e.g., hand response when target was on hand) than on a body-part that is incompatible with the responding limb (e.g., hand response when target was on foot). Findings from the present study revealed that the magnitude of the body-part compatibility effect (i.e., the index of the cognitive processing of the model) was modulated by tendencies for affective body-related comparisons. Specifically, women who were prone to experiencing social comparative emotions demonstrated stronger and more consistent body-part compatibility effects across models. Therefore, women with higher social comparison tendencies have heightened processing of bodies at a neurocognitive level and may be at higher risk of the negative outcomes linked with physique-salient media exposure.
Can You Hear That Peak? Utilization of Auditory and Visual Feedback at Peak Limb Velocity
(Taylor and Francis, 2016-07-27) Loria, Tristan; de Grosbois, John; Tremblay, Luc
At rest, the central nervous system combines and integrates multisensory cues to yield an optimal percept. When engaging in action, the relative weighing of sensory modalities has been shown to be altered. Because the timing of peak velocity is the critical moment in some goal-directed movements (e.g., overarm throwing), the current study sought to test whether visual and auditory cues are optimally integrated at that specific kinematic marker when it is the critical part of the trajectory.
Children and youth with impairments in social skills and cognition in out-of-school time inclusive physical activity programs: a scoping review
(Taylor and Francis, 2019-05-28) Orr, Krystn; Wright, F. Virginia; Grassmann, Viviane; McPherson, Amy C.; Faulkner, Guy E.; Arbour-Nicitopoulos, Kelly P.
Children and youth with impairments in social skills and/or cognition face many barriers to community participation specifically physical activity (PA) (e.g., limited staff training). Inclusive PA settings may provide opportunities for children and youth with and without impairments to engage together and promote physical and social skill development. The purpose of this scoping review was to critically evaluate the literature on out-of-school PA programs (i.e., non-curriculum programming) that included children and/or youth with impairments in social skills and/or cognition. A keyword search of seven databases followed by eligibility screening led to ten articles for this scoping review. For each included study, two research team members independently extracted and synthesized the data, and appraised the study reporting quality using the published quality assessment tool (QATSDD). Experts' evaluation of the research literature was obtained. Ten studies, which varied from low to high reporting quality, collectively addressed the following outcomes, with all showing mixed impacts: anthropometrics and fitness; motor and sport skills; psychological well-being; and socialization. Experts suggested routes forward for research and practice including longitudinal designs and programming variety to meet individual needs. Out-of-school PA programs that include children and/or youth with impairments in social skills and/or cognition provide an opportunity to improve multiple areas of health and wellness. However, limited high-quality research has been conducted to-date. Further evaluation of program effectiveness is warranted.
Choices in a key press decision-making task are more optimal after gaining both aiming and reward experience
(SAGE, 2020-12) Manzone, Joseph; Taravati, Saba; Neyedli, Heather F.; Welsh, Timothy, N.
When presented with two different target-penalty configurations of similar Maximum Expected Gain (MEG), participants prefer aiming to configurations with more advantageous spatial, rather than more advantageous gain parameters (Neyedli & Welsh, 2015b) – perhaps due to the motor system’s inherent prioritization of spatial information during movements with high accuracy demands such as aiming. To test this hypothesis, participants in the present studies chose between target-penalty configurations via key presses to reduce the importance of spatial parameters of the response and performance-related feedback. Configurations varied in spatial (target-penalty region overlap) and gain parameters (negative penalty values) and could have similar or different MEG. Choices were made without prior aiming experience (Experiment 1), after aiming experience provided information of movement variability (Experiment 2), or after aiming experience provided information of movement variability and outcome feedback (Experiment 3). Overall, configurations with advantageous spatial or gain parameters were chosen equally (Both-Similar condition) in all experiments. However, average behaviour at the group level was not reflective of the behaviour of most individual participants with three subgroups emerging: those with a value preference, distance preference, or no preference. In Experiments 1 and 2, these individual differences cannot be explained by MEG differences between configurations or participants’ movement variability, but these variables predicted choice behaviour in Experiment 3. Further in the Both-Different condition, participants only selected the larger MEG configuration at a level above chance when both variability and outcome information were given prior to the key press task (Experiment 3). In sum, the data indicate that prioritization of spatial information did not emerge at the group level when performing key presses and more optimal behaviour emerged when information regarding movement variability and outcome feedback were given.
““The clothes (and the face) make the Starman”: Facial and clothing features shape self-other matching processes between human observers and a cartoon character
(2022) Welsh, Timothy N.; Patel, Shikha; Pathak, Aarohi; Jovanov, Kim
Anthropomorphization occurs when human characteristics are attributed to nonhuman animals or objects. One process that could facilitate the anthropomorphization of nonhuman animals may be a self-other body-part matching mechanism wherein the body of the nonhuman animal is conceptually mapped to the human observer’s representation of their body. The present study was designed to determine if specific features could facilitate body-part matching between the cartoon of a nonhuman animal and human observers. Participants responded to targets presented on the cartoon of a starfish. In No Structure conditions, dots and curved lines were distributed evenly within the starfish. In Face conditions, two dots and one curved line represented eyes and a mouth of a “face”. In Clothes conditions, dots and lines represented a shirt and pants. Body-part matching emerged when the image had a face or clothing, but did not emerge in No Structure conditions. These studies provide unique evidence that the anthropomorphization of a nonhuman cartoon may be facilitated by human-like internal features on the image.
Deploying attention to the target location of a pointing action modulates audiovisual processes at nontarget locations
(Springer, 2020-07-16) Loria, Tristan; Tanaka, Kanji; Watanabe, Katsumi; Tremblay, Luc
The current study examined how the deployment of spatial attention at the onset of a pointing movement influenced audiovisual crossmodal interactions at the target of the pointing action and at nontarget locations. These interactions were quantified by measuring the susceptibility to the fission (i.e., reporting two visual flashes under one flash and two auditory beep pairings) and fusion (i.e., reporting one flash under two flashes and one beep pairing) audiovisual illusions. At movement onset, unimodal, or auditory and visual bimodal stimuli were either presented at the target of the pointing action or in an adjacent, nontarget location. In Experiment 1, perceptual accuracy within the unimodal and bimodal conditions was lower in the nontarget relative to the target condition. The fission illusion was uninfluenced by target condition. However, the fusion illusion was more likely to be reported at the target relative to the nontarget location. In Experiment 2, the stimuli from Experiment 1 were further presented at a location near where the eyes were fixated (i.e., congruent condition), where the hand was aiming (i.e., target), or in a location where neither the eyes were fixated nor the hand was aiming. The results yielded the greatest susceptibility to the fusion illusion when the visual location and movement end points were congruent relative to when either movement or fixation was incongruent. Although attention may facilitate the processing of unisensory and multisensory cues in general, attention might have the strongest influence on the audiovisual integration mechanisms that underlie the sound-induced fusion illusion.
Design of embodied interfaces for engaging spatial cognition
(Springer Open, 2016-12-07) Clifton, Paul G; Chang, Jack Shen-Kuen; Yeboah, Georgina; Doucette, Alison; Chandrasekharan, Sanjay; Nitsche, Michael; Welsh, Timothy; Mazalek, Ali
Aspects of spatial cognition, specifically spatial skills, are strongly correlated with interest and success in STEM courses and STEM-related professions. Because growth in STEM-related industries is expected to continue for the foreseeable future, it is important to develop evidence-based and theoretically grounded methods and interventions that can help train relevant spatial skills. In this article, we discuss research showing that aspects of spatial cognition are embodied and how these findings and theoretical developments can be used to influence the design of tangible and embodied interfaces (TEIs). TEIs seek to bring interaction with digital content off the screen and into the physical environment. By incorporating physical movement and tangible feedback in digital systems, TEIs can leverage the relationship between the body and spatial cognition to engage, support, or improve spatial skills. We use this knowledge to define a design space for TEIs that engage spatial cognition and illustrate how TEIs that are designed and evaluated from a spatial cognition perspective can expand the design space in ways that contribute to the fields of cognitive science and human computer interaction.
Detecting endpoint error of an ongoing reaching movement: the role of vision, proprioception, and efference
(Taylor and Francis, 2021-12-16) Singh, Animesh K.; Gerome, Manson A.; Timothy, Welsh N.; Tremblay, Luc
Brief windows of vision presented during reaching movements contribute to endpoint error estimates. It is not clear whether such error detection processes depend on other sources of information (e.g., proprioception and efference). In the current study, participants were presented a brief window of vision and then judged whether their movement endpoint under- or over-shoot the target after: 1) performing an active reach; 2) being passively guided by a robotic arm; and 3) observing a fake hand moved by the robot arm. Participants were most accurate at estimating their endpoint error in the active movement conditions and least accurate in the action observation condition. Thus, efferent and proprioceptive information significantly contribute to endpoint error detection processes even with brief visual feedback.
Distinct and flexible rates of online control
(Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2017-07-21) de Grosbois, John; Tremblay, Luc
Elliott et al. (Hum Mov Sci 10:393-418, 1991) proposed a pseudocontinuous model of online control whereby overlapping corrections lead to the appearance of smooth kinematic profiles in the presence of online feedback. More recently, it was also proposed that online control is not a singular process [see Elliott et al. (Psychol Bull 136(6):1023-1044, 2010)]. However, support for contemporary models of online control were based on methodologies that were not designed to be sensitive to different online control sub-processes. The current study sought to evaluate the possibility of multiple distinct (i.e., visual and non-visual) mechanisms contributing to the control of reaching movements completed in either a full-vision, a no-vision, or a no-vision memory-guided condition. Frequency domain analysis was applied to the acceleration traces of reaching movements. In an attempt to elicit a modulation in the online control mechanisms, these movements were completed at two levels of spatio-temporal constraint, namely with 10 and 30 cm target distances. One finding was that performance in the full-vision relative to both no-vision conditions could be distinguished via two distinct frequency peaks. Increases in the peak magnitude at the lower frequencies were associated with visuomotor mechanisms and increases in the peak magnitude at the higher frequencies were associated with non-visual mechanisms. In addition, performance to the 30-cm target led to a lower peak at a lower frequency relative to the 10 cm target, indicating that the iterative rates of visuomotor control mechanisms are flexible and sensitive to the spatio-temporal constraints of the associated movement.
Effect of task-specific execution on accuracy of imagined aiming movements
(Elsevier, 2014-11-18) Yoxon, Emma; Tremblay, Luc; Welsh, Timothy N
Ideomotor theory states that the neural codes that represent action and the perceptual consequences of those actions are tightly bound in a common code. For action imagination, bound action, and perceptual codes are thought to be internally activated at a sub-threshold level through action simulation. In support of this hypothesis, previous research revealed that imagined movement times (MTs) for reciprocal aiming movements were closer to actual execution MTs after the participants gained experience executing the task. The current study examined the task-specific nature of the effects of experience on imagination by determining if improvements in accuracy in the imagination of reciprocal aiming movements occur only with experience of the reciprocal aiming task or with any aiming task. To this end, one group of participants executed a reciprocal pointing task, whereas a second group executed a discrete aiming task with comparable accuracy requirements before and after imagining reciprocal aiming movements. Influence of task specificity on imagination was assessed by evaluating the changes in imagined MTs before and after execution. Consistent with previous findings, there was a reduction in imagined MTs following task execution. Critically, there was a significant time by group interaction revealing a significant pre/post reduction in imagined MTs for the group that executed the reciprocal aiming movements, but not for the group that executed the discrete aiming movements. These data support ideomotor accounts of action imagination because it appears that the imagination of a movement is affected by task-specific experience with that movement.
Emotion focused therapy with injured athletes: Conceptualizing injury challenges and working with emotions
(Taylor and Francis, 2022-02-07) Tamminen, Katherine A.; Watson, Jeanne C.
Athletes’ emotional responses to injuries may include feeling sad, angry, anxious, frustrated, helpless, irritated, and confused about their identity as athletes. Emotions are central in athletes’ sport injury experiences, yet most therapeutic approaches described in the sport psychology literature are grounded in cognitive-behavioural traditions and strategies may tend to emphasize controlling or suppressing emotions. Emotion Focused Therapy (EFT) is a robust, empirically-supported therapeutic approach grounded in experiential therapy and emotion theory that can be used to help athletes deal with injury-related difficulties. This position paper presents a rationale for using EFT in working with injured athletes. We review foundational principles of EFT and the conceptualization of emotions, emotion regulation, and dysregulation from an EFT perspective. Drawing on EFT theory, we present a conceptualization of five challenges and conflicts that arise within athletes’ injury experiences: (a) attending to the body and listening to the body; (b) tending to the pain versus pushing through pain; (c) interpersonal challenges and conflicts with others; (d) injuries as a challenge to athlete identity; and (e) concerns about time left in career and falling behind. Examples of ‘in vivo’ interactions between therapists and athletes are also presented to bring to life the use of EFT strategies and techniques, and we conclude with directions for future research and suggestions for practitioners to advance the use of EFT within the field of sport psychology. Lay summary: Emotion Focused Therapy (EFT) is a process-experiential, person-centered therapeutic approach that holds promise for clinicians and therapists working with injured athletes. EFT could be used to evoke and experience emotions in therapeutic sessions in order to develop greater acceptance, awareness, and understanding about one’s emotions to facilitate healing and support athletes’ ongoing performance and sport careers.
Examining the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on the psychosocial experiences of minor hockey athletes
(Taylor and Francis, 2020-06-03) Tamminen, Katherine A.; McEwen, Carolyn E.; Kerr, Gretchen; Donnelly, Peter
Models of positive youth development suggest that athletes may be influenced by parent education programmes; however, there is little research examining the impact of such programmes on athlete outcomes. This study examined the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on athlete outcomes among minor hockey players over three years. This study consisted of cross-sectional and longitudinal online surveys measuring athletes’ positive and negative developmental experiences, prosocial and antisocial behaviours, parental support and pressure, and sport enjoyment and commitment. Athletes completed at least one online survey during the study period (N = 366; 84.2% males; 14–19 years of age; M = 15.4 years), and 83 athletes completed multiple surveys for longitudinal analyses. Cross-sectional results comparing athletes in leagues adopting the programme at different time points indicated significant differences in prosocial behaviours towards teammates. Multilevel longitudinal analyses revealed improvements in athletes’ antisocial behaviours towards opponents, initiative, goal setting, and cognitive skills over time, regardless of whether they were in a league that implemented the programme. However, athletes in leagues that implemented the programme during the study reported greater improvements in antisocial behaviours towards opponents, and there were trends with respect to improved personal and social skills. These findings provide suggestions to improve the delivery and impact of parent education programmes in youth sport.
Exploring emotions as social phenomena among Canadian varsity athletes
(Elsevier, 2016-07-21) Tamminen, Katherine A.; Palmateer, Tess M.; Denton, Michael; Sabiston, Catherine; Crocker, Peter R.E.; Eys, Mark; Smith, Brett
Objectives: Athletes are constantly engaging with teammates, coaches, and opponents, and rather than treating emotions as manifested in the individual as is often the case, psychological analyses need to treat emotions as social and relational. The purpose of this research was to explore athletes' accounts of emotions as social phenomena in sport using qualitative inquiry methods. Method: Fourteen Canadian varsity athletes (7 males, 7 females, age range: 18-26 years) from a variety of sports participated in two semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed using inductive coding,categorization, micro-analysis, and abduction (Mayan, 2009; Strauss&Corbin, 1998). Results: Athletes reported individual and shared stressors that led to individual, group-based, and collective emotions, and they also reported emotional conflict when they simultaneously experienced individual and group-based or collective emotions. Emotional expressions were perceived to impact team functioning and performance, communicated team values, served affiliative functions among teammates, and prompted communal coping to deal with stressors as a team. Factors which appeared to influence athletes' emotions included athlete identity, teammate relationships, leaders and coaches, and social norms for emotion expression.Conclusions:Our study extends previous research by examining emotions as social phenomena among athletes from a variety of sports, and by elaborating on the role of athletes' social identity with regard to their emotional experiences in sport.

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